Theses and Dissertations

ORCID

https://orcid.org/0009-0005-4977-1142

Advisor

Sun, Yan

Committee Member

Okojie, Mabel

Committee Member

Mohammadi-Aragh, Jean

Committee Member

Hays, Tonya

Date of Degree

5-15-2026

Original embargo terms

Immediate Worldwide Access

Document Type

Dissertation - Open Access

Major

Instructional Systems & Workforce Development

Degree Name

Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)

College

College of Education

Department

Department of Industrial Technology, Instructional Design, and Community College Leadership

Abstract

Spatial thinking is a critical cognitive ability that supports learning and problem solving across science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) disciplines. Despite extensive research highlighting the importance of spatial thinking in STEM achievement and career success, limited research has examined STEM teachers’ cognition of spatial thinking or developed instruments to measure it. The purpose of this study was to investigate middle and high school STEM teachers’ cognition of spatial thinking, including their perceived pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) of spatial thinking, self-efficacy beliefs about teaching spatial thinking, and attitudes toward spatial thinking as a critical component of STEM learning and achievement. In addition, this study developed and validated the Spatial Thinking Teacher Cognition Scale for STEM Teachers (STCST). Survey data were collected from 198 middle and high school STEM teachers. Confirmatory factor analysis using the weighted least squares mean and variance adjusted estimator supported a 9-factor measurement model with 3 higher-order constructs: perceived PCK of spatial thinking, self-efficacy beliefs about teaching spatial thinking, and attitudes toward spatial thinking. The scale demonstrated strong factorial validity and internal consistency reliability based on ordinal alpha coefficients. Descriptive statistics indicated that teachers generally reported moderate to high levels across the three constructs. Factorial ANOVA results revealed that subject area was consistently associated with teachers’ perceived PCK and self-efficacy beliefs, with teachers in spatially demanding disciplines reporting higher levels. Additional analyses using chi-square tests and correspondence analysis further examined associations between teacher cognition levels and demographic characteristics. These findings provide empirical insight into STEM teachers’ cognition of spatial thinking and offer a validated instrument for future research examining the role of teacher cognition in promoting spatial thinking in STEM education.

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