Theses and Dissertations

ORCID

0000-0002-2424-0266

Issuing Body

Mississippi State University

Advisor

Lang, Andrew

Committee Member

Hersey, Mark

Committee Member

Marshall, Anne

Committee Member

Semmes, Ryan

Date of Degree

8-12-2026

Original embargo terms

Embargo 2 Years

Document Type

Dissertation - Open Access

Major

History

Degree Name

Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)

College

College of Arts and Sciences

Department

Department of History

Abstract

During President Ulysses S. Grant’s administration (1869–1877), U.S. foreign policy in East Asia emphasized industrial modernization as a means to promote social and political progress. American statesmen viewed Chinese, Korean, and Japanese systems of government and commerce as outdated and sought to encourage reforms at critical moments throughout Grant’s tenure. Grant’s personal outlook on East Asia was shaped by his perception of Chinese and Japanese immigrants as bonded laborers, or “coolies,” akin to slaves. He believed that expanding economic opportunity would help dismantle this system of servitude in East Asia and around the globe. Secretary of State Hamilton Fish implemented Grant’s vision by balancing the president’s personal convictions and Republican Party priorities with the practical demands of foreign policy. Contrary to the common historical view that U.S. policy in East Asia remained largely passive until the 1901 Open Door Notes, this dissertation argues otherwise. Grant and Fish transformed the loosely defined Euro-American cooperative approach of the 1860s into a foundation for John Hay’s pro-sovereignty Open Door Notes of 1901. Understanding their role is essential to grasp the evolution of U.S. policy toward East Asian sovereignty in the late nineteenth century.

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